FILM STUDIES THROUGH THE NET –

The traditional tried and found way of studying Cinematic Expression is strongly based on the master – apprentice relationship. “From clapper board to directing” (from one to one) is an excellent example of working and personal on location instruction. The academic Film Art education has risen next to this traditional film education, and it can be seen as a new adaptation of the traditional way (from one to many). Along with Internet, in the Film Art studies we, too, are transferring into distance education (from many to many). In this article I will present my research, in which I clarify the possibilities of the signing Deaf engaging in Film Art distance education through the information network.

1. Introduction

My research subject has risen from an actual need to develop the educational possibilities¹ of the Deaf students. The practical objective of my research is showing the suitability of hypermedia (such as the Internet WWW-service) in the distance education for the Deaf². For the distance education subject I chose “Cinematic Expression” as it is taught in the various subjects³ of the Film and Television Department at the University of Art and Design. I shall define the research problem by the following questions:

Is it possible to study cinematic expression through distance education?

How does a deaf hypermedia⁴ user learn the concepts connected to the film art and how does he or she create the links⁵ between (uniting) the concepts?

With the help of these questions I will study the usability of the hypermedia portal, while defining the meaning of usability for a distance learning student. Along with a multidisciplinary approach my research can be divided into three sectors:

the theoretical research and
the production of the CinemaSense⁶, a portal and a net-based study material on film production⁷,
and the intersection of them, where the actual user study and material collection is done (figure 1).

Figure 1. The sectors of the research and the material

My research contributes to revealing myths about deafness, and making it just another sector of the information society⁸. In this sense the research is also emancipatory, since deafness is somewhat incorrectly perceived from the viewpoint of social services and economics. It is sometimes seen as an auditive problem that can be technically solved.

2. RESEARCH PROBLEM – PROBLEMS IN THE RESEARCH

In my research problem there are intersecting problematics: on one hand, the more general problematics concerning the information society, and on the other hand, the more specific problematics concerning the academic education of the Deaf, which will be discussed later on. For the third part, the focus of the research problem is connected to the general problematics of art education and art research, which I am leaving without much attention in this study. I will begin the definition by issues linked to the information society.

For a student the information networks (such as the Internet) represent surging data rapids of raw material for knowledge, or information, in the whirlpools of which the student tries to keep above the water throughout his or her student days. The responsibility lies on the distance learning student who is expected to build (construct) his knowledge on each subject⁹. An efficient student should have at least the following skills in order to handle the flood of information:

Ability to systematically look for information.
Ability to analyze the reliability of the information received.

Ability to connect the new piece of information into existing information structures ( i.e. ability to conceptualize learned information into knowledge).

Using these skills the distance learning student looks for information diligently, but the studies may be delayed by having to study the functional particulars of the software and updating them. Furthermore, the information network with its search activities provides scattered bits of information and a mess of data classified in various ways. However, there is hardly any support in processing the data (conceptualization, information construction and structuring the hierarchies). Motivation is easily diminished, if one aims to learn something other than information technology.

Should the software and hardware function flawlessly, one still needs to take into account the users’ (students’) special characteristics. The strategies of information retrieval of the Deaf may be based on the qualities of Sign Language in ways hitherto not fully understood. The deaf person using Sign Language in his thinking has to look for information in the network with the help of a spoken language, yet he uses Sign Language in his thinking (constructing the information). As my work has progressed, this intricate complex of problems has been formulated into questions such as:

a. Does the active use of hypermedia influence the schemes of information retrieval?

b. Does the active use of hypermedia extend the concept system of its user in a way that benefits the learning?

c. What kind of user interface and structural solutions¹⁰ could be used to simplify distance education so that the user could construct information?

d. Could the user interface give a hint when following a wrong path would not lead into information?

e. Should Sign Language users be taken into account in the user interface structure, even when the user interface could not use Sign language per se¹¹?

f. How could the syntactic characteristics of Sign Language and film narration be transferred into user interfaces in order to simplify the information retrieval?

This kind of general contemplation and questions are not enough to research the problem, but they have lead into choosing a multidisciplinary and qualitative approach. Due to practical reasons (which will be discussed later on), in this study I will apply linguistics (mostly research on Sign Language), practical applications of artificial intelligence such as the self-organizing maps¹², film studies, and cognitive psychology as far as it is concerned with human learning ability. I am aware of the problems related to this choice, but due to the nature of this study I’m taking a risk and developing the methodology needed. Thus I am doing what Aurela¹³ calls “dual objective research”.

My profound objective is to understand how a Deaf user applies the concepts he knows into learning something new. I assume that a visual user interface supports a Deaf user in the information retrieval better than a user interface randomly linking text and symbols. If the material received does not offer an opportunity to invent something really new (which, of course, lures in the mind of every hopeful researcher), I will still produce a dissertation that will serve the practical (new) media production.

I will now present the theory of this research, after which I will describe the production part. Finally, I will present the field study aiming to find the answers. In the beginning, it might be a good idea to identify the definitions of learning and thinking in the context of my research.

3. LEARNING AND THINKING

Thinking is adopting concepts and using them¹⁴. A person learns his or her first concepts by realizing that certain phenomena can be classified under the same concept, and this concept can be given a name. A person expresses the concepts he has learned verbally (in auditive languages) and with signs (in visual Sign Languages). Words and signs are names of concepts. Once a child has learned the art of naming, he can communicate with his environment in a conceptual way. After the first realizations the conceptual and interactive learning becomes the most important way of increasing the concept system. Adopting new concepts is based on the previously adopted ones. According to Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning the single most important factor in learning is what the person already knows¹⁵. The new information links with the existing information as the concepts link with each other, even in unexpected ways. The schemes of thinking develop and the surrounding world of phenomena becomes easier to understand. That is why it is most important for the individual to learn a language, with which to think and identify the surrounding world. Language, the means of communication, makes us humans.

4. DEAFNESS AND SIGN LANGUAGE

The importance of Sign Language for the Deaf has been revealed through studies on Sign Languages. The linguistic and other kind of information on Sign Languages has been cumulating in the United States since the 1970’s and in Europe since the 1980’s (c.f. literature)¹⁶. With the knowledge acquired it has been understood that both the auditive and the visual languages are so called natural languages, functioning means of thought and communication.

Thus, a person born deaf, having learned the visual Sign Language as his first language, sees and understands his environment, forms his concepts and analyzes new information at least as well as his hearing peer.

The visual Sign Languages are based on mental images and strong perception of space, but Sign Language is not “just a figurative language” or “just gestures”. With its abstracting it does not differ from the spoken languages. The Deaf do use mimics when they sign, but mimics and gestures do not equal Sign Language.¹⁷

The people close to the deaf person seldom know Sign Language, so using it poses a problem. In practice, only the deaf children of signing parents have the chance to learn the language in a natural way. Most hearing parents of deaf children learn Sign Language only after the child is born, which understandably slows down the child’s language learning.

The total inability to communicate with a deaf child begets a vicious circle, that is hard to escape from and that can, at its worst, prevent the communication between the deaf adult and his or her environment. When the concepts essential to thought are not learned in childhood, the chances to education above the compulsory level are lost. In the worst case, the language skills, learning skills and conceptual thinking of a deaf adult can be crucially weaker than those of a hearing peer.¹⁸

Learning Sign Language is often considered difficult¹⁹. There are many reasons to this, but in this research I study mostly the significance of the communications channel. The most effective communications channel for a person born deaf is visual, while the others use auditive expression most effectively. When learning Sign Language, a person using auditive expression and hearing (a hearing person) has to transfer to an area of sight and visual expression. Is it this “channel switch” that makes Sign Language studies seem difficult, although the language itself is no more difficult than the spoken languages?²⁰ Using different channels provides a fundamental conflict between the “hearing” and the “deaf”, often frustrating everyone involved.

5. THE DEAF AND THE HEARING – LIKE CATS AND DOGS?

There are almost always problems relating to deafness in the areas of learning and managing one’s life in cases where the Deaf as individuals have missed the chance to learn the visual Sign Language in time²¹. Hearing in its various degrees is secondary to Sign Language in the communication among the Deaf. Yet the hearing environment often tries to solve the channel-based communication problem by operations and devices repairing the deafness. Along with the expectations regarding these devices there is unnecessary friction concerning the deafness and Sign Language: Sign Language is no longer needed if the missing or defective hearing is repaired. This kind of attitude shows that Sign Language is not considered equal to spoken languages. With information technology and surgery²² one attempts to repair medically defined audiologic/auditive “problems of deafness”, which are actually visual problems of language and of conceptual learning. There is, however, more and more evidence of the fact that from the viewpoints of learning, psychological and social well-being and communications, Sign Language is the most effective, most pleasant and most suitable means of communication for the Deaf.

Why is this evidence not enough? Besides the antiquated myths, the deafness is also affected by the thought structures from the industrial period. According to the ways of thinking of the industrial era we can accomplish anything with machines or devices. The meaningfulness of these functions is based on economical viewpoints. These thought structures have also been passed on to burden the postindustrial information society: with information technology (with its devices) deafness can be removed²³.

I claim, that especially in the areas of education and communication it would simply be most effective to accept Sign Language as the primary language of the Deaf, and to concentrate on developing new visual applications instead of the auditive repairing operations. The problems of communication and learning of the Deaf have to do with learning and mastering language, not with hearing. That is why this study does not see deafness as a medical deficiency, instead, Sign Language is seen as an interesting cultural, communicational and visual phenomenon. For the next, I will present the relationship of Sign Language to cinematic expression and hypermedia²⁴.

6. CINEMATIC EXPRESSION AND SIGN LANGUAGE

I am justifying the connection between film, hypermedia and Sign Language as follows. Both cinematic expression and Sign Language are based on visual perception, seeing²⁵, pictures, action and dramaturgic analysis of the perceived material. In both of them, the visual perception is edited through thought, conceptualization and empiric know-how into a new visual form for the viewer: a film or a signed narrative²⁶. A Deaf person with a good sense of language uses “editing” in his signing, varying the “frame ratios”, scenes and roles. The cinematic expression, as well, is based on presenting both simultaneous and linear visual information²⁷.

Undoubtedly the question arises, how close the “grammar of film”²⁸ is to the Sign Language syntax²⁹, which is based on an advanced sense of space, time, places and forms and simultaneous expression. With the syntax the signing person formulates an idea in order to express it to the audience³⁰. The film-maker, also, has to master the time, space, continuity, using roles and editing in order to get his message through³¹. When both of them comply with the linking rules (syntax) in a relevant manner, the audience can understand the message: the story is born through interaction³². The innate and kinetic “cinema sense”, the ability to see and understand things as visual stories might be related to the human ability to learn and understand both Sign Language and film.

7. HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE DEAF STUDENTS

The Deaf undergraduate should be performing in his academic studies on a par with the hearing peers, even when the university would not provide education in his own mother tongue³³. Practically, graduating within the time appointed can be very difficult. Part of this has to do with the weakness of general knowledge due to the aforementioned problems. On the other hand, the practical arrangements of the studies can, in the worst case, crush the Deaf youth studying among the hearing. On location instruction based on lectures and seminars requires the Deaf student using a Sign Language interpreter, but there is a tremendous lack of competent study interpreters. Furthermore, since the 1990’s there have been problems concerning the interpreters’ terms of work and salary. For various reasons, the interpreters have refused the study interpretations offered³⁴. In this kind of cases the deaf student has been delayed in his studies, even for years.

The way things are, hypermedia-based distance learning through the information network provides a significant opportunity to enhance the education for the Deaf, since we are reaching the technical preparedness for it³⁵. Of course, the academic education for the Deaf can’t be arranged by distance education alone. Instead, the on location instruction must also be taken into account, as well as the interaction between the teacher and the student³⁶. However, an efficient computer and Internet connection are not enough for distance learning. Even making the study material “available” is not enough. Distance learning always requires teaching as well, in one form or another. Is it possible to provide film studies without any professor, only through an interactive user interface?

8. CONCEPT MAPS AND FILM STUDIES

The student rushing into hypermedia and information network is faced with a collection of digitalized film material that is extremely extensive, difficult to perceive, as well as ever changing and ever growing. There are concepts in the material that the user is familiar with, and concepts that he doesn’t know. How does the Deaf user recognize the concepts, if the name for the concept that he has learned (a word in spoken language or a sign in Sign Language) differs from the name found? As a simplified example: Is elokuva same as en film or a movie and what is cinema? What about leffa? This, of course, has to do with the general language proficiency, but this is all about using hypermedia in order to study film art, not language. It is most crucial to find the concept behind the names, describing a certain group of phenomena: When one masters a concept, it can be linked with the other, previously acquired concepts.

I have chosen concept mapping as my research tool. A concept map is a working tool that can be flexibly used as a tool in learning and design, with which one can illustrate complex structures and processes. The concept maps clarify the main ideas to both the students and the professors, showing them where to concentrate on when solving each problem³⁷. The purpose of the concept maps is to show through statements, that there are relevant relationships between the concepts. A statement is a unity of meanings, formed by uniting at least two concepts. In its simplest form a concept map consists of two concepts only, forming a statement using one or more linkage words.

For example, “film is action” portrays a simple concept map, forming a statement from the concepts “film” and “action”. An example of somewhat more complex concept map would be the statement “the characters, settings and contradictions are presented in the first scene of the film”. This statement already includes several concepts and a linking word connecting them. Using concept maps it is possible to discuss whether a certain statement link is good or valid, or to identify the missing connections between the concepts, which in turn shows that there is need for further studying.³⁸ For example, the statement “the bad guys in westerns wear black hats” is relatively valid in the context of the westerns produced in the 1950’s, but it is no longer so in the film production of the 1990’s.

Figure 2 presents a possible concept map on “Film product” without the linking words. It should be noted that a concept map is never a definitive presentation of a matter.

Figure 2. Concept map on film production

A concept map is like a road map: it shows the routes that connect the meanings of the concepts into statements. For the researcher the concept maps give a summary of what the student has learned and how the learning process has happened, since the concept maps are an exact and overt description on the concepts and statements the student has acquired. Besides being excellent learning tools for the signing Deaf³⁹, the concept maps can also be used to visualize interaction. Thus, the concept maps function as instruments when designing an interactive user interface.

9. CINEMASENSE - PORTAL FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

CinemaSense 1.0 user interface and web-based study material on film production (portal) presenting a hypermedia entity on cinematic expression served as the instrument for this research. Along with the research it was developed into a kind of cinematic expression simulator. Both the students’ concept maps and the professional skills of the authors and the collaborators⁴⁰ were utilized in its designing and script. For the extensive materials also SOM (Self Organizing Map) was used. Thus the concept maps based on personal views and the SOM based on calculating neural networks complement each other in visualizing the information. In CinemaSense 1.0 portal, different names, their variations and the pictures and other material connected to it can be clustered under the same (main) concept or function, either using the concept maps or the SOM technology.

CinemaSense 1.0 portal utilizes existing multi- and hypermedia standards⁴¹. In practice, the work is realized using HTML codes⁴², avoiding the newest software innovations. The objective is to gain the greatest hardware independence possible, and to utilize what the WWW has to offer. The users, e.g. the Deaf and the hearing students in this research take part in developing the project. The versions (the so called beta versions) were tested in actual learning situations. The product has been developed through the means of engaged observation and discussions throughout the duration of the research. The users were also encouraged to analyze the user interface structures and to customize it in a way that suited them the best.

The objective of the portal’s visual and interactive functions is organizing the cinematic concepts in the students’ minds. In CinemaSense 1.0 the Finnish film-makers’ articles on various fields of cinematic expression are provided with links. The technique, grammar and means of expression of cinematography are illustrated and concretized by pictures, animations and video clips. For example, the effect of various presentation formats on the action field is illustrated by seeing the same take in different aspect ratios. The standard Academy ratio is taught by realizing the same scene with different frame ratios. Video clips and animations can also be used to clarify the differences between dolly shot and zooming, the camera movements or the effect of the optics on the end result. With simulators the student learns the basics of film-making and gets to try out various solutions without the production gear.

Interactive distance learning is mostly done through the FLE2 – Future Learning Environment 2 –a learning environment⁴³ developed in the Medialab of the University of Art and Design Helsinki UIAH. FLE2 is a web-based groupware for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL). It has been designed to support collaborative knowledge building and progressive inquiry. In fall 1999, FLE2 opened up a course on “cinema sense”, involving all the students in this research group. There is a connection between the CinemaSense and FLE2, facilitating the student transferring from the study material to the group work and back. Besides the superficial interaction (“click here and see the picture” kind of functions), the interactivity aims to provide a chance for creating a common concept system and developing means to express concepts.

10. RESEARCH GROUPS IN THE CO-DESIGN PROCESS

The actual study group consisted of signing students from the University of Jyväskylä teacher’s education program (OKL), with students from the University of Art and Design Helsinki UIAH, Department of Film and Television (ETO) as backing group.

The research groups (N=13, OKL=8, ETO=5)

Deaf students who started their studies in 1998 in the University of Jyväskylä teacher’s education program (KM, expected graduation time 5 years)
Students who started their studies in 1998 and 1999 in the Department of Film and Television (BA or MA, expected graduation time 3 or 5 years)

The OKL students were required to be interested in cinema and willing to learn the means and concepts of cinematic expression. Thus the most important prerequisite of learning, e.g. sufficient motivation (or the lack of it) can be excluded when analyzing the material. The distance learning was realized so that the OKL students took the basic 2 credits course on cinematic expression via the CinemaSense portal and FLE2, as non-registered students in the Department of Film and Television at the University of Art and Design. The students in ETO represented a motivated and “film conscious” group, having the best possible opportunity to get the best film studies instruction in Finland. Thus the ETO student group formed a relevant and sufficiently homogenous backing group for the OKL students.

The user studies started in fall 1999, overlapping the already started production of the portal, which was based on my theoretical studies, the professional skill of the production group, and previous experience in the field (figure3).

Figure 3. Work schedule

The students have actively taken part in developing the CinemaSense portal and user experiments during the years of 1999-2001. Hence the production has been a co-design project. The students’ comments and participation in the planning made up the material for the research, the analysis of which will lead to the actual results and conclusions.

Recording the material has been realized in four ways as follows. The concept maps on cinema drawn by the students made the core of the documentation, supported by other means of collecting material:

In 1999 both student groups filled in a questionnaire, presenting the students’ basic knowledge on cinema and information technology.
In 1999-2001 both student groups drew concept maps on the subject “cinema” and “Internet” (1-3 concept maps/phase).
Both groups took part in FLE2 – cinema sense –course and the dialogues were recorded.
The e-mail sent by the students was recorded.

According to Dreyfus and the five level division applied in his usability studies, the users can be divided into five levels of competency: novice, advanced beginner, competence, proficiency and expertise⁴⁴. In the beginning of the cinematic expression studies (spring 2000) the Deaf group can be considered as novices and the film art students as advanced beginners. One can justifiably presume that the film students are anxious to rise to the expertise level. They will most likely take part in the research and in designing the hypermedia, hoping to consciously reach some of their own goals regarding cinematic expression. The learning rate of these groups will differ considerably from each other, since the ETO students get efficient instruction through lectures and in practice. Regardless of this, I presume that during the distance learning period also some from the OKL group will rise from the novice level to that of the advanced beginner. I should stress that the objective of this study is not finding differences between the research groups but to understand the distance learning ways and techniques of the Deaf.

CONCLUSION

The signing Deaf have never been studied as hypermedia users or in distance learning situations, so there are practically no preceding theories available. The analysis of the material and the multidisciplinary approach assist in describing possible models or strategies used by the Deaf distance learning students. The descriptions based on the material will, in turn, assist in looking for a theory, using which the research in this field can be pursued further (Glaser & Strauss, 1971).

Table of Figures

Figure 1. The sectors of the research and the material 2

Figure 2. Concept map on film production. 11

Figure 3. Work schedule. 14

References

¹Pokkinen 1994, Sinkkonen 1994, Takala 1995.

²In this context I use the definition “Deaf” of “a person born deaf and having learned Sign Language as his or her first language, and who is actively using it”. In everyday use the expression “deaf” primarily points to the lack of hearing. I want to emphasize the essential connection to mastering Sign Language.

³Screenwriting, directing, cinematography, sound recording, editing, production and documentary.

⁴Video clips, animations, graphics, pictures and hypertext.

⁵A person does not, of course, ”link” concepts to each other mechanically, even if the concepts form perpetually changing schemes. “Linking” is an auxiliary concept in the research, used to conceptualize a complex thought process.

⁶CinemaSense refers to the product or the user interface, or the portal with the net-based study material on film production. Sense of Cinema in this context refers to human thought.

⁷Laitinen, Raike & Viikari 2001.

⁸Information is not yet knowledge. “Elvis lives” will not become knowledge until we have evidence and/or own experience of it.

⁹Novak & Gowin 1984.

¹⁰An encouraging example: Tree of Life. http://phylogeny.arizona.edu/tree/phylogeny.html

¹¹Pimiä & Rissanen 1987, 76-77.

¹²Kohonen 1998.

¹³Aurela 1993.

¹⁴I will consciously ignore the discussion of non-conceptual thinking and it’s essence.

¹⁵Novak & Gowin 1997, 46.

¹⁶Stokoe published his first article on Sign Language already in 1960, but the systematic research didn’t start until the 1970’s. In Finland the research on Sign Language started in 1982.

¹⁷See e.g. Bellugi & Studdent-Kennedy 1980, Lane 1984, Jokinen 1992, Padden & Humphries 1988, Preisler 1983, Rissanen 1985, Sacks 1989, Stokoe 1978.

¹⁸Sacks 1989, Sinkkonen 1994.

¹⁹See Pimiä & Rissanen 1987, 78-79. It is essential to separate the Sign Supported Speech and Sign Language. The former is not Sign Language, even though both of them include signing.

²⁰This statement is verified by the hundreds of hearing persons around the world becoming Sign Language interpreters each year. In Finland one can study in Kuopio and in Turku to become a Sign Language interpreter.

²¹See Sinkkonen 1994, 20-21. The first years are most important in learning language.

²²This must not be understood as an attitude. For example the cochlear implant and the rehabilitation involved are well suited to those who became deaf as adults and already master the spoken language. See Marttila & al. 1995.

²³A historical-scientific spectacle based on this kind of thinking could be, for example, “Hephata! Einstein meets Jesus in Space”.

²⁴A low budget film about this could be the sequel to the former spectacle, “Episode 2: Heureka! Eisenstein gets Oscar in Virtual Space”. (Oscar: Carl Oscar Malm, J. L. Runeberg’s acquaintance, Deaf himself, established the first Finnish school for the Deaf in Porvoo in 1846. Sign Language was used in teaching.)

²⁵“Seeing” means actively understanding what is perceived. Seeing always requires watching, but you can watch without seeing. The ability to see is the basic requirement for making films.

²⁶Seeing films is also a complex and active action requiring skill, not just passive receiving. Bordwell 1985, 30-33.

²⁷See, e.g. Bordwell 1985, Fiske 1994, Lotman 1990, Sacks 1989, Stokoe 1978, 81-86, Rissanen 1985, Wenders 1991, 4-5.

²⁸Although the term “grammar of film” is used, the film is not a language in the same sense as the natural languages in the communication among people. It is notable, that in the film the visual information is systematized into an understandable form. C.f. Bordwell 1985, 33.

²⁹Sign Language is not an international language, since languages always develop interactively with the immediate surroundings. The lexicon (signs) vary, but the syntax of the Sign Language is about the same everywhere.

³⁰The flexibility of natural languages is evident here: also the silent signer has his audience.

³¹Burch 1990, Schuchman 1988.

³²Fiske 1994.

³³The only Sign Language college in the world is Gallaudet University in Washington D.C. There are a few universities in the United States and in Europe (mostly in Great Britain and Sweden) offering some series of lectures or training programs in Sign Language.

³⁴Selin 1999.

³⁵See Brien 1996, Heeter & a. 1997, Hellström 1996, Hämäläinen 1997, Jokinen & Rolig 1996, Jääskeläinen 1998, Raike 1997, Stine 1997.

³⁶Salminen 1997.

³⁷Johnson 1996, Zeiliger 1996.

³⁸Novak & Gowin 1997, 19-23.

³⁹Biese 1997.

⁴⁰The production group of CinemaSense include a web-designer, film editor and AV-producer.

⁴¹The World Wide Web Consortium. http://www.w3.org/

⁴²HyperText Markup Language.

⁴³Leinonen & al. 1999.

⁴⁴Keinonen 1998, 72.

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